{ hostPkgs, ... }: {
  name = "nixos-rebuild-target-host";

  # TODO: remove overlay from  nixos/modules/profiles/installation-device.nix
  #        make it a _small package instead, then remove pkgsReadOnly = false;.
  node.pkgsReadOnly = false;

  nodes = {
    deployer = { lib, pkgs, ... }: let
      inherit (import ./ssh-keys.nix pkgs) snakeOilPrivateKey snakeOilPublicKey;
    in {
      imports = [ ../modules/profiles/installation-device.nix ];

      nix.settings = {
        substituters = lib.mkForce [ ];
        hashed-mirrors = null;
        connect-timeout = 1;
      };

      environment.systemPackages = [ pkgs.passh ];

      system.includeBuildDependencies = true;

      virtualisation = {
        cores = 2;
        memorySize = 2048;
      };

      system.build.privateKey = snakeOilPrivateKey;
      system.build.publicKey = snakeOilPublicKey;
      # We don't switch on `deployer`, but we need it to have the dependencies
      # available, to be picked up by system.includeBuildDependencies above.
      system.switch.enable = true;
    };

    target = { nodes, lib, ... }: let
      targetConfig = {
        documentation.enable = false;
        services.openssh.enable = true;

        users.users.root.openssh.authorizedKeys.keys = [ nodes.deployer.system.build.publicKey ];
        users.users.alice.openssh.authorizedKeys.keys = [ nodes.deployer.system.build.publicKey ];
        users.users.bob.openssh.authorizedKeys.keys = [ nodes.deployer.system.build.publicKey ];

        users.users.alice.extraGroups = [ "wheel" ];
        users.users.bob.extraGroups = [ "wheel" ];

        # Disable sudo for root to ensure sudo isn't called without `--use-remote-sudo`
        security.sudo.extraRules = lib.mkForce [
          { groups = [ "wheel" ]; commands = [ { command = "ALL"; } ]; }
          { users = [ "alice" ]; commands = [ { command = "ALL"; options = [ "NOPASSWD" ]; } ]; }
        ];

        nix.settings.trusted-users = [ "@wheel" ];
      };
    in {
      imports = [ ./common/user-account.nix ];

      config = lib.mkMerge [
        targetConfig
        {
          system.build = {
            inherit targetConfig;
          };
          system.switch.enable = true;

          networking.hostName = "target";
        }
      ];
    };
  };

  testScript = { nodes, ... }:
    let
      sshConfig = builtins.toFile "ssh.conf" ''
        UserKnownHostsFile=/dev/null
        StrictHostKeyChecking=no
      '';

      targetConfigJSON = hostPkgs.writeText "target-configuration.json"
        (builtins.toJSON nodes.target.system.build.targetConfig);

      targetNetworkJSON = hostPkgs.writeText "target-network.json"
        (builtins.toJSON nodes.target.system.build.networkConfig);

      configFile = hostname: hostPkgs.writeText "configuration.nix" ''
        { lib, modulesPath, ... }: {
          imports = [
            (modulesPath + "/virtualisation/qemu-vm.nix")
            (modulesPath + "/testing/test-instrumentation.nix")
            (modulesPath + "/../tests/common/user-account.nix")
            (lib.modules.importJSON ./target-configuration.json)
            (lib.modules.importJSON ./target-network.json)
            ./hardware-configuration.nix
          ];

          boot.loader.grub = {
            enable = true;
            device = "/dev/vda";
            forceInstall = true;
          };

          # this will be asserted
          networking.hostName = "${hostname}";
        }
      '';
    in
    ''
      start_all()
      target.wait_for_open_port(22)

      deployer.wait_until_succeeds("ping -c1 target")
      deployer.succeed("install -Dm 600 ${nodes.deployer.system.build.privateKey} ~root/.ssh/id_ecdsa")
      deployer.succeed("install ${sshConfig} ~root/.ssh/config")

      target.succeed("nixos-generate-config")
      deployer.succeed("scp alice@target:/etc/nixos/hardware-configuration.nix /root/hardware-configuration.nix")

      deployer.copy_from_host("${configFile "config-1-deployed"}", "/root/configuration-1.nix")
      deployer.copy_from_host("${configFile "config-2-deployed"}", "/root/configuration-2.nix")
      deployer.copy_from_host("${configFile "config-3-deployed"}", "/root/configuration-3.nix")
      deployer.copy_from_host("${targetNetworkJSON}", "/root/target-network.json")
      deployer.copy_from_host("${targetConfigJSON}", "/root/target-configuration.json")

      # Ensure sudo is disabled for root
      target.fail("sudo true")

      # This test also ensures that sudo is not called without --use-remote-sudo
      with subtest("Deploy to root@target"):
        deployer.succeed("nixos-rebuild switch -I nixos-config=/root/configuration-1.nix --target-host root@target &>/dev/console")
        target_hostname = deployer.succeed("ssh alice@target cat /etc/hostname").rstrip()
        assert target_hostname == "config-1-deployed", f"{target_hostname=}"

      with subtest("Deploy to alice@target with passwordless sudo"):
        deployer.succeed("nixos-rebuild switch -I nixos-config=/root/configuration-2.nix --target-host alice@target --use-remote-sudo &>/dev/console")
        target_hostname = deployer.succeed("ssh alice@target cat /etc/hostname").rstrip()
        assert target_hostname == "config-2-deployed", f"{target_hostname=}"

      with subtest("Deploy to bob@target with password based sudo"):
        deployer.succeed("passh -c 3 -C -p ${nodes.target.users.users.bob.password} -P \"\[sudo\] password\" nixos-rebuild switch -I nixos-config=/root/configuration-3.nix --target-host bob@target --use-remote-sudo &>/dev/console")
        target_hostname = deployer.succeed("ssh alice@target cat /etc/hostname").rstrip()
        assert target_hostname == "config-3-deployed", f"{target_hostname=}"

      with subtest("Deploy works with very long TMPDIR"):
        tmp_dir = "/var/folder/veryveryveryveryverylongpathnamethatdoesnotworkwithcontrolpath"
        deployer.succeed(f"mkdir -p {tmp_dir}")
        deployer.succeed(f"TMPDIR={tmp_dir} nixos-rebuild switch -I nixos-config=/root/configuration-1.nix --target-host root@target &>/dev/console")
    '';
}